Clergy and religious life
Scholars and religious roles in Islam
Islam has no church in the institutional sense, and Sunni Islam, followed by the large majority of Muslims, has no ordained clergy or priesthood. No sacrament requires a priest, and any adult Muslim of good standing may lead the prayer. Religious authority rests instead on learning. The ulama, the scholars trained in the Qur’an, the hadith and Islamic law (fiqh), interpret the tradition, teach it and advise on its application, and their standing depends on the recognition of teachers, peers and the community. Many states now organise this authority through ministries, official muftis and salaried mosque staff. Shia Islam, especially in its Twelver form, has developed a clearer hierarchy of learning, culminating in the senior jurists whom believers follow in matters of law. Alongside the scholars stand the Sufi orders, communities of mystical practice led by sheikhs. The roles below are functions and grades of learning, not ranks of a priesthood.
- Learning and law
- The mosque
- Shia scholarship
- The Sufi path
Orders and states of life
Learning and law
The ulama are scholars, not priests. They study for many years in mosques, madrasas and universities such as Al-Azhar in Cairo, receiving licences (ijaza) from their teachers. Those qualified to give formal legal opinions are muftis. In many modern states the senior mufti holds an official post, while countless others teach, judge or write without any state title.
The mosque
The mosque needs no clergy to function, but most have regular staff. The imam leads the five daily prayers and often preaches the Friday sermon, and the muezzin gives the call to prayer. In countries such as Turkey, Egypt and Morocco these posts are salaried positions under a ministry or a state religious directorate; elsewhere communities appoint and pay them directly.
Shia scholarship
Twelver Shia scholars train in seminaries (hawza), chiefly in Najaf and Qom. Advanced students who reach independent legal reasoning (ijtihad) become mujtahids. Informal titles mark seniority, from hujjat al-islam to ayatollah and grand ayatollah. A small number of grand ayatollahs are recognised as marja’ al-taqlid, a source of emulation whose rulings believers choose to follow.
The Sufi path
Sufism is the mystical dimension of Islam, practised in orders (tariqa) that trace a chain of masters back through generations. A disciple (murid) is guided by a sheikh and joins in shared remembrance of God (dhikr), which takes forms such as chanting, recitation and, among the Mevlevi, the turning ceremony known as the sema.
Learning and law
Grand Mufti
al-mufti al-akbar / mufti al-diyar (Arabic, مفتي)
Addressed as His Eminence (Arabic: *Samahat al-Mufti* or *Fadilat al-Mufti*)
A mufti is a scholar qualified to issue a fatwa, a reasoned opinion on a question of Islamic law or ethics; a fatwa is advisory and is not binding in the way a court judgment is. Many countries, including Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Lebanon, appoint a grand mufti as their senior official jurist. In Egypt he heads Dar al-Ifta, founded in 1895, which works alongside Al-Azhar, the ancient mosque-university whose scholars have a formal part in his selection. Grand muftis answer public questions, advise the state and represent official religious opinion.
What the figure wears
- Jubba jubba (جبة)
A dark, charcoal or black, open gown with wide sleeves, worn over the inner robe; the outer garment of the traditional Azhari scholar.
- Qaftan qaftan (قفطان)
A lighter, ankle-length inner robe, often striped or plain, closed at the front and visible beneath the open jubba.
- Azhari turban 'imama (عمامة) on a tarbush (طربوش)
A white turban cloth wound neatly around a red felt tarboosh, whose flat red crown shows on top; the recognised headdress of Al-Azhar scholars.
- Prayer beads misbaha / subha (مسبحة)
A string of beads, usually ninety-nine or thirty-three, used to count phrases of praise and remembrance of God after prayer.
- Outside services
- Many official muftis wear the Azhari gown and turban in public and on formal occasions, though some dress in a suit at home or abroad. In Saudi Arabia the dress is a white thobe, a headcloth and a dark bisht.
- Insignia
- There are no sacred insignia; the Azhari turban and gown mark a graduate scholar, and authority comes from learning and office.
The mosque
Imam
imam (Arabic, إمام); Turkish imam, Persian pish-namaz
Addressed as Imam or Shaykh, followed by the name
In everyday Sunni usage the imam is the person who leads the congregational prayer, standing in front of the rows of worshippers. Any knowledgeable adult Muslim may lead, but larger mosques appoint a regular imam who also teaches, officiates at weddings and funerals and offers guidance. At Friday noon prayer the sermon (khutba) is given by a preacher, the khatib, a role the imam often takes on. In Shia Islam the word also has a higher sense, referring to the twelve Imams descended from the Prophet, regarded as the rightful leaders of the community.
What the figure wears
- Thobe thawb (ثوب) / jubba
A long, ankle-length white robe with long sleeves, the common dress of men in much of the Arab world and the usual garment for prayer.
- Bisht bisht (بشت)
A light, flowing brown cloak edged with gold braid, worn open over the robe on formal occasions and at the Friday sermon.
- Kufi and turban taqiya (طاقية), 'imama (عمامة)
A white close-fitting cap with a white turban cloth wrapped around it, a traditional sign of learning and of dignity in the mosque.
- Closed book
A bound volume held closed in one hand, standing for the study of the Qur’an and the scholarly texts on which the imam’s teaching rests.
- Outside services
- Outside the mosque many imams wear ordinary clothes. Dress varies by country: Turkish imams wear a long robe and a white-wrapped cap at prayer, while imams in Europe and North America often lead prayer in a simple robe and cap.
- Insignia
- No insignia of office; the imam's place is marked by the prayer niche (*mihrab*) and, for the Friday sermon, the stepped pulpit (*minbar*).
The mosque
Muezzin
mu'adhdhin (Arabic, مؤذن); Turkish müezzin
Addressed as No formal style; addressed by name
The muezzin proclaims the call to prayer, the adhan, five times a day, traditionally from the minaret and today usually through loudspeakers. He also gives the second call, the iqama, when the congregation stands for prayer. The tradition holds that the first muezzin was Bilal ibn Rabah, a freed slave renowned for his voice. A good muezzin is valued for clear pronunciation and a melodic voice, and in cities such as Istanbul and Cairo the call is a recognised vocal art with its own melodic modes.
What the figure wears
- Robe thawb / jubba
A plain white ankle-length robe with long sleeves, simple and clean as befits someone calling others to prayer.
- Kufi taqiya (طاقية)
A white, close-fitting rounded cap of cotton or crochet, worn by many Muslim men during prayer and in the mosque.
- Outside services
- Most muezzins dress as other men of their community; many combine the role with other work in the mosque, or serve as assistant imams. In Turkey they are salaried staff of the Diyanet.
- Insignia
- None; the call itself, given with hands raised beside the ears, is the mark of the role.
Shia scholarship
Ayatollah / Grand Ayatollah
ayatollah (Persian آیتالله, Arabic ayat Allah), ayatollah al-uzma; marja' al-taqlid
Addressed as *Hazrat-e Ayatollah* (Persian); Grand Ayatollah, Arabic *Samahat al-Sayyid* for a sayyid
Ayatollah, meaning sign of God, is a title for a senior Twelver Shia mujtahid, a jurist qualified to reason independently from the sources of law. It is not conferred by ordination but grows from teaching, writing and the recognition of other scholars. Grand ayatollahs who publish a treatise of rulings and attract followers become a marja’ al-taqlid, source of emulation. Believers choose a marja’ and follow his rulings on practice, and many pay him religious dues (khums) to support seminaries and charity. The major centres are Najaf in Iraq and Qom in Iran.
What the figure wears
- Black turban 'ammameh siyah (عمامه)
A black turban, worn by scholars who are sayyids, recognised descendants of the Prophet; other Shia scholars wear a white turban.
- Aba 'aba (عبا)
A long, loose black cloak with armholes rather than full sleeves, falling from the shoulders to the ankles, the outer garment of the Shia cleric.
- Qaba qaba (قبا)
A long grey robe, closed at the front and worn under the aba, with the white collar of the shirt showing at the neck.
- Closed book
A bound volume held closed, standing for the jurist’s study and for the treatise of practical rulings (risala) that a marja’ publishes.
- Outside services
- The turban, aba and qaba are everyday dress for Shia clerics, worn in teaching, in public and at home with visitors; colours of the qaba vary, but the aba is usually black or brown.
- Insignia
- No insignia beyond dress; seniority is shown by title, the size of a scholar's following and the circles of students who attend his classes.
The Sufi path
Sufi dervish (Mevlevi semazen)
darvish (Persian درویش), Turkish derviş, semazen
Addressed as Dede for a senior Mevlevi; the order's head is the Çelebi
A dervish is a member of a Sufi order who follows a spiritual path under a sheikh. The Mevlevi order, founded in Konya after the death of the poet Jalal al-Din Rumi in 1273, is known for the sema, a ceremony of music and turning in which the dervish turns as an act of remembrance. In 1925 the Turkish Republic closed all Sufi lodges (tekke), including those of the Mevlevi, but the sema continues as a performance and practice, and UNESCO lists the Mevlevi Sema Ceremony as intangible cultural heritage.
What the figure wears
- Sikke sikke
A tall, honey-brown felt hat in the shape of a truncated cone, traditionally said to stand for the tombstone of the self.
- Tennure tennure
A long white sleeveless skirt that flares out into a wide bell as the dervish turns, traditionally likened to a shroud.
- Jacket destegül
A short white jacket with long sleeves, worn over the tennure and fitted at the waist, leaving the arms free to open during the turn.
- Outside services
- Mevlevi dress is reserved for the sema; at other times dervishes wear ordinary clothes. Before turning, the semazen wears a black cloak (*hırka*) over the white garments, removing it as the ceremony begins.
- Insignia
- The sikke is the chief sign of the order; the turning posture, right palm up to receive and left palm down to pass on, expresses its teaching.
Questions people ask
Does Islam have priests?
No. Islam has no sacraments that require a priest and, in Sunni Islam, no ordination. Any adult Muslim who knows the prayer may lead it, and marriage and funerals do not depend on an ordained officiant. Authority belongs instead to scholars, the ulama, whose standing comes from study and recognition. In practice many states employ imams, preachers and muftis, which can make the roles look like a clergy, but they remain teachers and functionaries rather than a priesthood.
What is a fatwa?
A fatwa is a scholarly opinion on a question of Islamic law or ethics, given by a qualified mufti in answer to a question. Most fatwas deal with ordinary matters such as prayer, fasting, inheritance, business and family life. A fatwa is not a court verdict and is not automatically binding; the person asking may weigh it against other opinions. Official bodies such as Egypt's Dar al-Ifta issue thousands of fatwas each year, many now by telephone and online.
What is the difference between an imam and a mufti?
An imam leads the prayer, and in a mosque with a regular imam he usually also teaches, preaches and serves the community. A mufti is a scholar qualified to give formal legal opinions. The two roles can overlap in one person, but they differ in kind: leading prayer requires knowledge of the Qur'an and the prayer, while giving fatwas requires advanced training in jurisprudence. A grand mufti is a senior official mufti, often appointed by the state.
Why do some Shia clerics wear black turbans and others white?
In Twelver Shia practice a black turban marks a *sayyid*, a scholar from a family recognised as descended from the Prophet through his daughter Fatima and his cousin Ali. Clerics who are not sayyids wear a white turban. The colour indicates lineage, not seniority or learning: a young seminary student who is a sayyid wears black, while a senior grand ayatollah who is not a sayyid wears white.
Why do the Mevlevi dervishes turn?
The sema is a form of *dhikr*, the remembrance of God. In Mevlevi interpretation the dervish turns from right to left around the heart, with the right palm open to heaven to receive and the left turned to the earth to pass on what is received. The ceremony follows a fixed order of music, poetry and four sections called *selam*. Since the closure of the lodges in 1925 it has been performed publicly, notably in Konya each December.
Sources and further reading
- The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change – Muhammad Qasim Zaman (Princeton University Press, 2002)
- Defining Islam for the Egyptian State: Muftis and Fatwas of the Dar al-Ifta – Jakob Skovgaard-Petersen (Brill, 1997)
- An Introduction to Shi'i Islam – Moojan Momen (Yale University Press, 1985)
- Mystical Dimensions of Islam – Annemarie Schimmel (University of North Carolina Press, 1975)
- Islam: The Straight Path – John L. Esposito (Oxford University Press, 1988)